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Section 3: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Your Threat Assessment Program

Date:

March 6, 2024

Topics

Threat Assessment

Crisis Timeline

Prevention Planning

Audience

School Personnel, Mental Health Professionals, Law Enforcement & First Responders

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Objective

This section describes steps for evaluating the effectiveness of a threat assessment program, including topics such as implementation fidelity and the impact of threat assessment on students. 

Implementation Tools

What is an Effective Program?

Fundamentally, a threat assessment program is effective if it keeps everyone safe. However, safety is more than the absence of school shootings, which are statistically rare and will never occur in most schools.99 School safety includes both physical and psychological safety.100 Physical safety is concerned with physical acts of violence like fighting and assault, while psychological or social-emotional safety is concerned with problems such as verbal bullying and harassment. School threat assessment teams should consider multiple indicators of physical and psychological safety and focus on prevention and mitigation efforts such as lowering rates of fighting and bullying and making use of multi-tiered systems of supports and interventions.

Resource

The National Center for Safe Supportive Learning Environments has a collection of validated school climate surveys that can be used to assess school climate.

School threat assessment aims to help students resolve problems and to support social-emotional and academic learning needs that might be identified in the threat assessment process. Therefore, an additional measure of effectiveness is to examine the services and supports provided to these students and the relevant outcomes. A part of case management is to monitor and promote the student’s behavioral and academic status. 

As noted in the U.S. Secret Service guide, “a crucial component of preventing targeted violence at school relies on developing positive school climates built on a culture of safety, respect, trust, and social and emotional support.”11 Threat assessment teams should encourage school-wide efforts to help students feel connected to the school. Students should have supportive peer groups and trusting relationships with their teachers. School climate surveys and other measures can be used to assess the healthy and protective qualities of the school. School discipline should be fair and equitable and concerned with facilitating student growth and responsibility. 

Implementation Fidelity

Developing a school threat assessment program is a dynamic process, requiring regular review and adjustment as necessary. One way to evaluate the effectiveness of your threat assessment program is to examine whether it has been implemented with fidelity. This section describes the importance of implementation fidelity and presents some general procedures and a scoring protocol that can be applied across threat assessment models. Fidelity includes making sure that the program is conducted in a fair and equitable manner that protects student rights.

Key Term

Implementation Fidelity: The degree to which an intervention is delivered as intended.101

The Importance of Implementation Fidelity

Knowing whether a program has been implemented with fidelity allows practitioners to understand how and why an intervention works. When a program is unsuccessful, it is difficult to judge whether the program was ineffective or was not properly implemented. Therefore, evaluating the fidelity of implementation is essential to evaluating a program and achieving maximum effectiveness.

School threat assessment programs should demonstrate implementation fidelity. Failure to carry out threat assessments effectively can have tragic consequences. Investigations of school shootings in Colorado and Florida revealed that the school’s threat assessment team had identified the student who subsequently carried out the shooting, but did not follow its threat assessment procedures with fidelity and did not take appropriate actions to prevent violence.102-104 These cases highlight the need for ongoing program evaluation to measure fidelity of implementation.

Factors Affecting Implementation Fidelity

Implementation fidelity is a concern for all kinds of programs and can be especially challenging in school settings.105 Staff need a solid understanding of the rationale and need for a program, and there must be strong support by the school leadership and staff who champion the particular program.106,107 Otherwise, the quality of program implementation will suffer because of the many competing demands and responsibilities in schools. Factors that negatively influence program implementation are insufficient staff, inadequate supervision, high staff turnover, heavy student caseloads, and lack of training.108,109  

One of the first hurdles to achieving implementation fidelity for schools implementing threat assessment is training all team members in each school. The team members need high-quality training that includes active learning, role-playing, and feedback. Training must be scheduled at a time when all team members can attend, which often means pulling staff from their regular school duties for a full-day workshop. In districts with many schools, the training must be coordinated across schools. After the initial training, there will be a need to train new team members each year due to staff turnover. Beyond training team members, the school should provide an orientation to threat assessment for its staff so that they understand and support the program. All staff members must understand the need to report threats promptly so that they can be investigated. Parents and students also need an orientation to threat assessment for the same reasons.

Another challenge to implementation fidelity occurs when staff have heavy caseloads and do not feel they can devote enough time to conducting a thorough threat assessment or following up with students after a threat assessment has been conducted. The team leader or another administrator with responsibilities for school safety must provide oversight and support so that teams follow their protocol.

Action Step: Factors Affecting Program Implementation

In choosing a threat assessment program, schools should consider how they will evaluate its implementation. The program evaluation literature has identified some program characteristics that influence how readily a program can be implemented and evaluated.101

  • Organizational capacity: A positive school climate, good staff morale, low staff turnover, and well-defined staff roles and responsibilities make it easier to implement a new program with high fidelity.
  • Organizational support: The program should have dedicated resources, including staff time, funding, training, and supervision.
  • Program features: Programs can be implemented more effectively if there are manuals, standardized forms, handouts, videos, or other guidance.
  • Program complexity: More complex programs are harder to implement consistently and are more prone to revision or simplification when adopted.
  • Integration into school operations, local initiation, and local planning: Programs are more successful when they are integrated into regular school routines and operations.

The school administration and threat assessment team must be in alignment for implementation fidelity. For example, one school trained its threat assessment team and implemented its program, but the next year a new principal joined the school who did not understand the threat assessment approach. The team, who had received threat assessment training teaching them to effectively critique the current risk, evaluated a middle school student who drew a picture of a figure holding a very large knife in a threatening manner. The team found no evidence that the student had such a knife, a current peer conflict, or an intention to stab anyone. The information gathered in the assessment suggested that the boy was trying to impress his peers with a dramatic drawing. During the assessment the student recognized that his drawing could have been misinterpreted and was apologetic. The team decided that the threat was not serious and resolved it as a minor incident. However, the school principal applied a zero-tolerance approach and decided that the student should be given a long-term suspension in order to set an example and deter other students from aggressive behavior.

A further complication is that outside evaluators cannot always be available to monitor implementation, given that threat assessments typically occur infrequently and unexpectedly.49,86 However, local supervisors could be called upon to monitor or supervise cases. In one district, the head of the threat assessment program routinely reviews the digital records of ongoing cases and consults with the team on the most serious or complex cases. 

A school staff member sits with an upset youth, holding a clipboard and patting his arm in support.

Challenge

Including school resource officers is a frequent concern in schools adopting threat assessments. School threat assessment authorities consistently recommend a law enforcement officer be a member of a threat assessment team, although the officer need not be engaged in every case except where state law requires it (e.g., FL) and might not be an SRO. However, bringing in an officer outside the school who does not understand threat assessment may increase the risk of criminalization if the officer does not understand the school context. Evaluating implementation fidelity can help make sure all members of the threat assessment team, including law enforcement, receive the necessary threat assessment training.

Measuring Implementation Fidelity

Schools need to regularly review the quality of their threat assessments. This evaluation should examine whether school teams are conducting threat assessments consistent with their guidelines and whether they are using evidence-based practices. Schools should review protocols to ensure that there are clearly defined roles and expectations for all team members.26

The evaluation of threat assessment is particularly challenging because threat assessment requires some degree of flexibility and professional judgment. Threat assessment models offer guidelines to assist a team’s decision-making rather than a prescriptive process. Threat assessments are intended to produce an individualized safety plan or intervention that depends on the student and the nature of the threat. 

Resource

The fidelity evaluation tool is intended to address the core components of threat assessment. It provides a scoring sheet for schools to assess the implementation of their chosen threat assessment model.

Program implementation literature recommends that program developers specify core components of an intervention that are directly related to a program’s theory of change. This approach allows collaborators some flexibility to adapt a program to individual circumstances and helps ensure that the intended outcomes are achieved.107,110

There are several core components of threat assessment practice identified by threat assessment experts.10,43,45,80,103 These include:

  • Establishment of a multidisciplinary team, including training for all team members.
  • Education for students, parents, and staff about threat reporting and the school’s use of threat assessment.
  • Consistent use of standard threat assessment procedures (e.g., information gathering, threat classification, management strategies).
  • Regular team meetings to monitor cases and assess the effectiveness of risk reduction efforts.
  • Fair and equitable outcomes for students, including disciplinary consequences, law enforcement actions, and supports and interventions.

Case Outcomes

Another important measure of the effectiveness of your threat assessment program is to consider its influence on students. School teams should be monitoring the effectiveness of their safety plans as part of their case management efforts. For those students who remain on their caseload, the team should reviews the student’s well-being and safety on a regular basis, with more frequent review where there is greater concern. 

This section describes three important measures of student outcomes following a threat assessment: safety, support (services to the student), and equity and fairness. General considerations for each outcome measure are discussed, and a scoring tool is included.

Key Terms

Physical Safety: The physical dimension of safety involves preventing physical injury through the use of threat assessment, along with other disciplinary and security measures that maintain order in the school.

Psychological Safety: The psychological dimension of safety involves the mental health and well-being of students by preventing bullying and harassment by students and adults, as well as creating a school climate that is supportive and conducive to learning.100,104

Outcome One: Safety

Physical Safety

Threats to physically injure someone should be prevented or averted without anyone being harmed. Schools cannot realistically prevent all threats of violence from being carried out but should have a very low rate of violent incidents following a threat assessment. Violent incidents can range from simple assaults and fights to more serious injuries and, of course, school shootings. School shootings are so rare that it is not scientifically feasible to claim that an absence of a shooting can be attributed to threat assessment, but controlled studies have shown threat assessment results in a decline in bullying and other forms of victimization.111,112 Nevertheless, it is important for schools to document the number of threat cases they have investigated, what kinds of violent acts were threatened, and the number that resulted in some type of violent act (most often, a fight). 

A stack of paperwork on a desk that someone is filing through.

Research Findings

A study of 1,865 cases in Virginia found that students who received a threat assessment made no attempt to carry out their threat in 97% of cases and only attempted a violent act in 3% (62) of the cases.88 Of the 62 attempted cases, school authorities averted the attempt in 49 cases so that there was no physical injury to anyone. In the remaining 13 cases, a student who received a threat assessment subsequently carried out the threat, which in all cases involved an assault or fight.

Psychological Safety

Researchers found that victims of aggression, especially bullying, suffer from impaired concentration, motivation, and engagement in learning that compromises academic achievement.113-115 Research also shows that school violence is negatively associated with teachers’ self-efficacy and professional engagement and that teachers who feel unsafe are more likely to leave the profession.116-119

A welcoming, supportive school environment that fosters respect, communication, and trust is foundational to school safety. A large body of research associates a positive school climate with several positive student outcomes, including better social-emotional adjustment and less peer aggression, misconduct, and weapons carrying.108,120-124 A positive school climate, characterized by high structure and high support, “is the foundation for a safe school.”125 The NTAC and the threat assessment models highlighted throughout this toolkit emphasize the importance of a positive school climate to threat assessment implementation and school safety.

Action Step: Classifying Case Outcomes

Threats can be classified as not attempted, attempted-but-averted, and carried out. Schools should tabulate the number of threats evaluated by their team and report the distribution of these three outcomes. An attempted-but-averted threat is one in which the student engaged in some kind of attack, such as going after a classmate or bringing a weapon to school with the intent to use it. A threat would be classified as carried out if there was any kind of physical assault or injury to someone following a threat assessment, even if the assault did not achieve the stated goal of the threat (e.g., a student threatened to kill someone and stabbed the person but did not kill them). The few threats that are carried out can be classified based on whether anyone was injured, with categories of no injury, minor injury (such as a bruise or abrasion), or major injury (such as a broken bone, stab wound, or some other injury requiring hospital treatment).

Outcome Two: Student Support

Students should receive interventions and services to address the problems or concerns that are identified in the threat assessment. Teams will want to examine student outcomes to gauge the effectiveness of their efforts and identify ways to improve. Researchers found that schools have implemented a wide range of non-disciplinary supports for most students following a threat assessment.42 These included mental health supports, a behavior plan, and a modified schedule, among others. Strategies such as academic supports and mental health services for students are effective in addressing student needs and in improving student behavior following a threat assessment.31

Effective supports and services can mitigate the need for exclusionary discipline, which has well-established negative consequences for students.125 For example, the Texas study Breaking Schools’ Rules found that the widespread practice of removing students from school for minor misconduct did not improve school safety, had no apparent benefits to the students, and increased their risk of school dropout and juvenile court involvement.23

Resources

There are many different evidence-based ways to achieve a positive school climate. The Office of Elementary & Secondary Education provides information on resources to improve school climate.

A Virginia study found that high school suspension rates were associated with higher dropout rates beyond the effects of school demographics and student attitudes toward school rules.126 The discipline gap is closely associated with the achievement gap and the “school-to-prison pipeline.”127 Schools serving high numbers of disadvantaged students are more likely to use exclusionary discipline and to have lower academic achievement and higher dropout rates, ultimately leading to higher juvenile crime rates.23,127 It is critical to track the relationship between threat assessment and school discipline over time at each school by evaluating threat assessment outcomes. 

It is also important to document whether students continue to make threats, engage in further aggressive behavior, or have disciplinary problems in the months and years after a threat assessment. Although students rarely carry out their threats, students who make more serious, substantive threats are much more likely to attempt to carry out the threat than students whose threats are classified as not serious.128 We also know from case studies of school shootings and averted shootings that the students most at risk for extreme violence had multiple incidents of conflict or misbehavior before a serious act of violence occurred.10,20 Although a threat assessment might avert an immediate crisis, some students remain at risk for continued problems and require further support.

Challenge

Modified schedules are sometimes used as a threat assessment outcome. These can take different forms but sometimes involve sending individual students home early. There are concerns that using a modified schedule may result in students having less of an opportunity to receive assistance. However, using a modified schedule can be preferable to complete removal from school because students would still be able to receive monitoring and supports. Threat assessment teams should carefully consider all possible interventions and supports.

An important goal of threat assessment is that the student can continue in school with continued behavior and academic progress. Threat assessment is able to generate support for students in need of services. Schools can document the extent to which students receive counseling, mental health services, academic support, or other interventions using the Student Outcome Tool. If students are receiving special education services, the threat assessment should be coordinated with the student’s IEP and comply with all special education requirements. Finally, there should be a follow-up assessment to determine whether the student was able to continue successfully in school.

Action Step: Students with Disabilities

Threat assessment teams should be mindful of interventions or supports already in place for students. A thorough review of the student’s IEP or 504 plan should always be part of the threat assessment process.

Outcome Three: Fairness and Equity

Schools implementing threat assessment should use it as part of a comprehensive approach to building safe and positive school climates that reduce their use of exclusionary discipline, except in the most serious cases where school removal is indicated for safety reasons. 

Although threat assessment teams generally do not make disciplinary decisions, their assessments should inform the disciplinary process. Schools using threat assessment should be able to avoid major disciplinary actions (such as long-term suspension or expulsion) for minor student misbehavior that does not pose a serious threat. Schools should consider law enforcement outcomes as well as disciplinary outcomes. Although threat assessment teams do not make law enforcement decisions about students, the threat assessment process should inform law enforcement decision-makers (for a detailed discussion of information sharing during the threat assessment process, see Student Rights in Section 2 of this toolkit). 

Resource

The U.S. Department of Education has guidance on:

There should be a relatively low rate of students who are arrested, charged, or placed in a detention facility as a result of a threat. In a study of 1,865 cases in Virginia schools, only 1% of students were arrested and fewer than 1% were placed in juvenile detention. Court charges were registered in approximately 5% of cases.100 However, court charges do not necessarily result in convictions and sometimes are resolved with a referral for services.134 A study of 22,694 Florida threat assessment cases found an arrest rate of 0.7%, incarceration of 0.1%, and court charges of 1.8%.38

As noted above, the threat assessment team does not make disciplinary decisions or undertake law enforcement actions; however, schools should examine the disciplinary decisions and law enforcement outcomes for their cases.51 One of the major concerns in American education is that students from some minority groups and students with disabilities are subject to disproportionately higher rates of exclusionary discipline. Outcomes should be equitable across student demographic groups as defined by race, ethnicity, or disability status.

Several studies have found little or no disparity across Black, Hispanic, and White students in the use of school suspension or law enforcement actions among students who received a threat assessment.36,42 However, in light of the prevalence of disparities in exclusionary discipline observed in the general student population (not limited to students receiving a threat assessment) as reported by the U.S. Department of Education, it is important for schools to monitor and review disciplinary and law enforcement outcomes for students receiving a threat assessment.51,96

Action Step: Examining Disciplinary Outcomes

We recommend that schools compare disciplinary and law enforcement outcomes across demographic groups. 

Disciplinary outcomes to review include, but are not limited to:

  • Out-of-school suspensions.
  • In-school suspensions.
  • Expulsions.
  • Changes in school placement.

Law enforcement outcomes to consider are:

  • Arrests.
  • Court charges.
  • Placement in juvenile detention or jail facilities. 

Schools should also consider the transportation of students to a psychiatric assessment for involuntary hospitalization.

One concern is that students of color and students receiving special education services might be referred for threat assessment at a higher rate than other students. The threat assessment process uses multiple sources of information and multiple perspectives of team members to help protect against bias in the decision-making process. Research indicates that these students do not receive disproportionate disciplinary or law enforcement outcomes when referred for a threat assessment.27,32 Studies have shown that students are much more likely to be excluded from school for a threat if the school does not use threat assessment. 

When appropriate, a referral for threat assessment is preferable to exclusionary discipline such as suspension or expulsion, especially when the threat assessment program is being evaluated with fairness and equity of outcomes in mind.

As the National Association of School Psychologists concluded, “When BTAM best practices are followed, the process helps prevent or reduce the overuse of restrictive placements and punitive measures for students with disabilities and students of color.”51

Challenge

Although disproportionate referrals may be a cause for concern, the goal of threat assessment is to prevent disproportionate disciplinary outcomes. Research shows that when schools do not use threat assessment, the outcome for students who make a threat is that they are much more likely to be suspended or transferred from school. Threat assessment teams take a problem-solving rather than a punitive approach and follow standard procedures for performing the threat assessment. These steps protect students from inappropriate discipline by objectively analyzing the context of the situation.

Procedures for Determining Equitable Outcomes

Table 5, below, provides an example of how differences in suspension by race within the group of students referred for threat assessment can be determined. A hypothetical school with 1,000 students reported 25 threat cases with the following student demographics and suspension outcomes.

An important aspect of determining equitable outcomes for threat assessment is accurate record keeping, described in Section 2 of this toolkit. If a school keeps accurate threat assessment records and discipline records, it can determine whether there are disparities in referral rates by race, ethnicity, disability status, or other demographic characteristics of interest. A school can compare overall discipline rates (e.g., suspension rate) to the discipline rates for students receiving a threat assessment.

Table 5: Hypothetical Differences in Suspension by Race

Threat Case DataTotal (N)White (N)Black (N)Hispanic (N)
Number of cases2510114
Number of cases resulting  in suspension7331
Percent suspended in group28%30%27%25%
Risk ratio*——.90.83
*The risk ratio tells us how the risk for one racial/ethnic group compares to the risk for a comparison group. In this example, we used White as the comparison group (the risk ratio for Black students compared to White students is 27/30, the number of Black students suspended/number of Black students referred for TA *100 / the number of White students suspended/number of White students referred for TA *100).

Note that this is a hypothetical example. Most schools have relatively few (<10) threat assessment cases per year, but many more disciplinary referrals. Statistical analyses will be more reliable in larger samples, so that it is desirable to aggregate data across schools, perhaps at the district level. 

Suspension Rates Following Threat Assessment

Within the 25 threat cases, 7 resulted in suspension. Of the 10 White students referred for threat assessment, 3 (30%) were suspended. Of the 11 Black students referred for threat assessment, 3 (27%) were suspended, and 1 of the Hispanic students referred for threat assessment was suspended (25%). This suggests that there is parity in the rate of suspension following threat assessment for Black and White students; approximately equal proportions of White and Black students were suspended following a threat assessment.

Resource

Schools can use the Outcome 3 section of the Student Outcome Tool and input their own data to identify potential disparities in referral for threat assessment outcomes.

Action Step

Schools can conduct a statistical test of association (e.g., crosstabs in SPSS) in which each racial group is compared to the White reference group.

A risk ratio tells us how the risk for one racial/ethnic group (e.g., Black) compares to the risk for a comparison group (e.g., White). Risk ratios of greater than 1.0 indicate overrepresentation by a racial/ethnic group, and risk ratios of less than 1.0 indicate underrepresentation by a racial/ethnic group. For more details on this calculation, see pages 5-6 of the U.S. Department of Education’s Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Special Education guide.

Two school staff members stand in empty school atrium, looking through a folder of documents.

Research Findings

For a review of these studies, see Appendix 2 in the full toolkit PDF.

Cornell, D. G., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in kindergarten through grade 12. School Psychology Review, 41(1), 100–115. 

Cornell, D. G., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). Reductions in long-term suspensions following adoption of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines. NASSP Bulletin, 95(3), 175–194. 

Cornell, D. & Lovegrove, P. (2015). Student threat assessment as a method for reducing student suspensions. In D. Losen (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Research for policymakers (pp. 180-191). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Huang, F., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (2018). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review, 47, 183-195.

Crepeau-Hobson, F. & Leech, N. (2021). Disciplinary and nondisciplinary outcomes of School-Based Threat Assessment in Colorado Schools. School Psychology Review, 51(5), 609-618.      

JustChildren & Cornell, D. (2013). Prevention v. punishment: Threat assessment, school suspensions, and racial disparities. Charlottesville, VA: Legal Aid Justice Center and University of Virginia Curry School of Education.  

Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107–119.

Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis city schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders, 34(1), 42–54.

These references cover the entire toolkit, not just this section.

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